Kamaruzzaman Bustamam - Ahmad Visiting Research Fellow, Academy of
Islamic Studies, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia kamaruzzaman13@gmail.com
ABST RACT
There have been many studies on Islamic education
in Aceh, especially among
traditional institutions. However, the new
coming of usta>dh from Java
has led to social dynamics in the province. This paper aims to examine the contemporary of Islamic
authority in education in Aceh, Indonesia.
It will focus with two
social concepts and their role in society.
It is based from fieldwork
in Aceh in several areas.
It is argued that there
is a change of Islamic authority in the society in which the usta>dh plays more important role
in education than
teungkue. Meanwhile, the
teungkus are more interested in political
arena.
Keywords: Aceh;
Islamic education; Teungku;
Usta>dh; Terrorist
INTRODUCTION
This
paper
discusses
the
socio-cultural
context
of
Islamic
education
in
Aceh. It will focus on the changes in religious authority
in the Acehnese community, that is, from
the figure of the teungku to the usta>dh.
It has been widely argued that authority
in Islamic education
in Aceh is held by traditional Islamic religious leaders called teungku.
They play important roles not only in the dayah (Islamic boarding school), or religious
schools, in the reproduction of ‘ulama>>,
but also as guardians of Acehnese society.
However, in the everyday life of Islam in
Aceh, some teungku
also play major roles
in society and politics rather than just in Islamic education. Usta>dh,
on the other hand, means guru
(teacher). They play important roles not
only in Islamic boarding schools (pondok modern), but also as religious preachers (juru dakwah). Both teungku and usta>dh are commonly used terms in Aceh.
However,
in the last two decades,
the name usta>dh became more accepted by the Acehnese people. It is said that “the modern dayah was first established in 1983, the Dayah of ‘Ulumul Qur’an
– Bustanul ‘Ulum,’
in
Langsa, East Aceh.”1 The student who is graduated from this pesantren at the level of
junior high school or
Madrasah Tsanawiyyah (junior high
school) is called santri, while the santri in the dayah we preferred to call our
teachers usta>dh, not teungku.
Many of them had graduated
from pesantren
in Java. In contrast, during the conflict in Aceh (1976-2005) the teungku who
formerly concerned themselves exclusively with religious
matters,
were being used by
members of GAM
(Free Achenese Movement),
especially at
the
district (Panglima Wilayah)
and
sub-district levels (Panglima Sagoe).
MAT ERIALS
AND MET HODS
This paper is basically
a fieldwork study conducted in several pesantrens in
different areas in Aceh. Therefore, the data used in this study are that of
obtained from
observation and
interviews. In addition,
to
support those
data, this study also benefit
from library studies relevant
to the issue under discussion. As for the
method, this paper utilizes a socio-anthropological approach. That is to say that
this paper does not merely portray
Islamic educational system in theoretical manner. Rather, it also observes the socio- cultural background
of situation leading to
changing view of teacher
in Muslim
society. In other words, this
study
attempts
at
describing social perception of usta>dh,
teacher, which changes from one period to another.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A.
The Loca l ‘Ulama> > ’:
Teungku
In Aceh, ‘ulama>> have played a major role since the coming of Islam until its joining
with the Republic
of Indonesia at independence.2 During the period of the
Islamic kingdom they were
employed as special advisors
to the Kings and Queens.3 In the era of the wars with the Dutch they were seen as heroes who employed the
ideology
of
jiha>d
against
the
Dutch.4 Historically,
1 Muhammad Abdurrahman, “The Curriculum of Islamic Studies in Traditional and Modern
Dayah in Aceh: A
Comparative Study,” Al-Jami‘ah, 30 (2001): 78.
2 Alfian, “The ‘Ulama in Acehnese Society,” Reading on Islam in Southeast Asia, ed. Ahmad Ibrahim,
Sharon
Siddique, and Yasmin Hussain (Singapore:
ISEAS, 1985); M. Hasbi Amiruddin, ‘Ulama Dayah: Pengawal
Agama Masyarakat Aceh, trans. Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad (Lhokseumawe: Nadya Foundation, 2003); M. Hasbi Amiruddin,
Perjuangan ‘Ulama Aceh Di Tengah Konflik (Yogyakarta: CENINNETS Press, 2004);
Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, “Menatap Masa Depan Dayah Dalam Era Transformasi Ilmu Pengetahuan
Dan
Gerakan Keagamaan” (paper presented at the Seminar Sehari: Mendesign Dayah 2050 (Mencari Format Dayah yang Tahan Zaman), Banda Aceh, 2012).
3 Denys Lombard, Kerajaan Aceh Zaman Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), trans. Winarsih
Arifin (Jakarta: Kepustakaan
Populer Gramedia, 2007); Azyumardi
Azra, “Education, Law, Mysticism:
Constructing Sosial Realities,” Islamic Civilization in the Malay World, ed. Mohd. Thaib Osman (Kuala Lumpur and Instanbul:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka and The Research Centre for Islamic History,
Art and Culture, 2000); Azyumardi Azra, Jaringan ‘Ulama Timur Tengah Dan Kepulauan
Nusantara Abad XVII Dan XVIII: Melacak Akar Pembaharuan Pemikiran Islam Di Indonesia (Bandung: Mizan, 1994).
4 Ibrahim Alfian, “Aceh and the Holy War (Prang Sabil),” Verandah of Violence: The Background
to the Aceh Problem, ed. Anthorny Reid (Singapore: Singapore University Press,
2006); Ibrahim Alfian,
Perang Di Jalan Allah (Jakarta:
Sinar Harapan, 1987); Ibrahim Alfian, Wajah Aceh Dalam Lintasan Sejarah (Banda Aceh: Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Aceh, 1999).
rebellion against
Indonesian government after independence was run by the
‘ulama>>, especially following
the declaration of Darul Isla>m in the 1950s. All
of these actions were not centralized from the palace of the Islamic
Kingdom, but from the many dayahs in Aceh.5 According to Yusny Saby, “Those
‘ulama>> ” who stand out for
their lasting contributions in shaping the religious and cultural values of the Acehnese
society are [...] – the “‘ulama>” of Pasai; of Aceh Darussalam; of
the Prang Sabil (Jihad Struggle);
and the reformist “‘ulama>” of PUSA
(All Aceh “‘ulama>”
Association).”6
In Aceh, apart from the term teungku, the ‘ulama> is also referred to
by the terms Abu> and Abon. There is a hierarchy
in this system. The highest
‘ulama> is called
the Abu> (father) and is associated
with that village, for example, Abu Tanoh Mirah, Abu Awe Geutah, Abu Tanoh Abe, etc. In this
context, the name is related to the land where they control the religious
aspects of society.7 It can be added that the Acehnese also call Abu the Teungku
Chik, who is normally
the head of dayah. His job is “deciding the
curriculum and methodology to be
used in the establishment”8 of
the dayah. Generally speaking,
the education system of
the dayah is the same as those Islamic schools known
as pesantren in Java, 9 Surau
in
Padang, 10 and
Pondok in Malaysia,11 and Ponoh in Southern
Thailand.12 Thus, the role of the Teungku Chik is similar to the position of
the Kiai in pesantren.13
The role of the Abu Chik or Teungku
Chik is not restricted to the
dayah, but he is also regarded
as a spiritual leader
for the society.
For
5 A. Hasymy, ed., Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia (Kumpulan Prasaran Pada Seminar
Di Aceh) (Bandung: Al-Maarif,1993);
Rasul Hamidy, Fachruddin Hasballan, and Rusmin Tumanggor,
“Kharisma
‘Ulama dalam Persepsi Masyarakat Aceh,” in Agama dan Perubahan
Sosial (Banda Aceh: Lembaga Research
dan
Survey, IAIN Ar-Raniry Darussalam, 1981/1982).
6 Yusny Saby, “The Role of the ‘Ulama in Combating Colonial Experience: The Case Fo Aceh, Sumatra,”
Islamic Studies in Asean: Presentation of an International Seminar, ed. Isma-ae Alee, et. al. (Pattani:
College of
Islamic Studies,
Prince of Songkla University, 2000), 395.
7 Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, Acehnologi (Banda Aceh: Bandar Publishing, 2012); idem, “Jejak
Spirit Aceh,” ‘Ulama dan Politik: Menyonsong
Aceh Baru, ed. Bustami Abubakar (Banda Aceh: Lembaga Studi
Masyarakat Aceh dan STAIN Malikussaleh, 2011).
8 Abdurrahman, “The
Curriculum of
Islamic
Studies in Traditional
and Modern
Dayahs in Aceh:
A
Comparative Study.”
64. On the role of Teungku Chik see also Muhammad Abdurrahman, “Proses Akulturasi
Nilai Persaudaraan Islam Di Dua Dayah Terpilih Di Acheh” (Ph.D. Diss, University Putra Malaysia, 2009).
9 Martin van
Bruinessen, Kitab Kuning, Pesantren,
and Tarekat:
Tradisi-Tradisi
Islam
di Indonesia
(Bandung:
Mizan, 1999); Zamakhsyari Dhofier,
Tradisi Pesantren: Studi tentang Pandangan
Hidup Kyai (Jakarta: Lembaga
Penelitian,
Pendidikan dan
Penerangan
Ekonomi dan
Sosial,
1994); Abdurrahman
Mas ud, Dari
Haramain ke Nusantara:
Jejak Intelektual Arsitek Pesantren
(Jakarta: Kencana, 2006); M. Dawam Rahardjo, “The Kyai, the Pesantren and the Village: A Preliminary
Sketch,” Reading
on Islam in Southeast
Asia, ed. Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique, and Yasmin Hussain (Singapore: ISEAS, 1985). 240-6.
10 Azyumardi Azra, Surau Pendidikan Islam Tradisional dalam Transisi dan Modernisasi (Jakarta: Logos,
2003); Dina Afrianty, “Transformasi Pendidikan Islam Di Minangkabau,” in Mencetak
Muslim Modern: Peta
Pendidikan Islam Indonesia, ed. Jajat Burhanuddin and Dina Afrianty (Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 2006).
11 William R. Roff, “Pondoks,
Madrasahs and the Production of ‘ulama in Malaysia,” Studia Islamika, 11: 1
(2004): 1-22.
12 Utai Dulyakasem
and Lertchai Sirichai, eds., Knowledge and Conflict Resolution: The Crisis of
the
Border
Region of Southern
Thailand (Nakhon
Si Thammarat: School of Liberal Arts, Walailak University, The Asia
Foundation, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, 2005).
13 Dhofier, Tradisi Pesantren; Ronald Lukens-Bull, A Peaceful Jihad: Negotiating Identity and Modernity in
Muslim Java (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Hiroko Horikoshi, Kyai Dan Perubahan Sosial (Jakarta:
P3M, 1987); Rahardjo, “The Kyai, the Pesantren and the Village.”
example, he
would frequently be invited to government ceremonies, or visited
by new Military Commanders (Panglima) to get their blessing
as part of the silaturrahmi. Some Abu
Chik are also involved in the political
arena, especially in the most recent local elections in 2009.
They established a party called PDA (Partai Daulah
Aceh). However, the position of the Teungku Chik is more
similar to that of the spiritual
leader in the Shi‘ite sect.14 During the
conflict, they
played a role as mediators between the
Indonesian military and GAM. In addition,
in one dayah in Aceh Besar one Abu guaranteed the safety of some GAM members who had surrendered to the government.
Some Abu Chik are also called Shaykh.15 In some dayahs, especially
in South Aceh, suluk (spiritual Islamic mysticism) is held during Ramadhan.
If there
is no Shaykh or tarekat in such dayah some senior santris
will
perform a khalwad (retreat), a 45-day meditation near some
great ‘ulama>’s tomb16 or in very dark room near the
dayah. There
is another spiritual
retreat in Aceh which is called Salek Buta, a form of spiritual meditation
where “there is no teacher”
during a “meeting”
with Allāh.17 Some believe
that this is a part of
the teaching of wah}dat al-wuju>d (mystical union) which originally came from
Ibn ‘Arabi>.18
The teungku
who works under the Abu Chik or Teungku Chik is
known as the Teungku Bale. Academically, this group of teungku has a role
that is similar to that of
the usta>dh in ‘dayah modern.’
This level is almost same as Senior High School. The santri study from Teungku Bale in the small-hall of the dayah. The Teungku Bale also
represents the Abu Chik or Teungku Chik in some
community ceremonies. They act as leaders of prayers in
the dayah,
giving the khutbah (preaching), and reciting du‘a (prayer) in some
kenduris or slametan.19 Some chosen Teungku Bale marry with the daughters
of the Abu Chik. This
is seen as a signal
that this Teungku
will become a leader of the dayah if the Teungku Chik passes
away. Or, the Teungku Bale is asked to establish
his own dayah or to stay at the dayah for the rest of his life. The networks
of the Teungku Bale are a
14 Abulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, The Just Ruler (al-Sult}a>n al-‘A<dil) in Shi‘te Islam: The Comprehensive
Authority of the Jurist in Immamite Jurisprudence (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
15 On tarekat
in
Indoneia, see Martin van Bruinessen, “The
Origins and Development of Sufi Orders
(Tarekat) in Southeast
Asia,” Studia Islamika, 1: 1 (1994); Martin van Bruinessen, “Studies of Sufism and the
Sufi Orders in Indonesia,” Die Welt des Islams, 38: 1 (1998); Martin van Bruinessen, Tarekat Nasyabandiah Di
Indonesia (Bandung Mizan, 1998).
16 For a description of visiting saints’ graves, see Henri Chambert-Loir and Claude Guillot, eds., Ziarah dan
Wali di
Dunia Islam (Jakarta:
Serambi, 2007).
17 Misri A. Muchsin, “Salik Buta Aliran Tasawuf
Aceh
Abad XX, Al-Jami‘ah: Journal of
Islamic Studies, 42:
1 (2004):183.
18 On this, see William C. Chittick,
Ibn ‘Arabi>:
Heir to the Prophets,
ed. Patricia Crone, Makers of the
Muslim World (Oxford: Oneworld, 2007); Nas}r H{a>mid Abu Zayd, Falsafat al-Ta’wi>l (Dira>sah fi Ta’wi>l al-Qura>n
‘inda Muh}y al-Di>n Ibn ‘Arabi>) (Beirut: al-Markaz al-Thaqa>fi al-‘Arabi>, 1996); Syed Muhammad
Naquib Al-Attas,
The Mysticism of Hamzah Fansuri (Kuala Lumpur: University of
Malaya Press, 1970).
19 Andrew
Beatty, Variasi Agama
di Jawa:
Suatu Pendekatan
Anthropologi,
trans. Achmad
Fedyani
Saifuddin (Jakarta: Murai Kencana,
2001); Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java (Chicago and London: The
University of
Chicago Press, 1960).
new generation of leadership in dayah. For example,
there is an intellectual network of Dayah Mudi Mesra in Lamno (Aceh Jaya), Dayah Mesjid Raya in Samalanga (Aceh Jeumpa), and Dayah Awe Geutah (Aceh Jeumpa).
Next to the Teungku Bale is the Teungku Rangkang. The rangkang
level
is similar to the level of junior high school. The group of Teungku Rangkang is selected from the santris who act as “assistants” to the Teungku
Bale. They will study Islam from the Teungku Rankang
or even the Teungku Chik once a week. In
this category, the santri studies the Kitab
Kuning (“Yellow Books”) written in the Jawi script. In fact,
this group does not have
any authority in dayah, except as “assistants” to the Tengku Bale.
However, some Teungku Rangkang will achieve the position of
Teungku Bale due to their progress
and loyalty to the system.
Next is the teungku meunasah.
His tasks are not in the dayah, but
in the gampong (village). The meunasah
is a place where children study Islâm
and which is also used as a place for prayers. At this level children “are
taught how to read and write Arabic, to recite al-Quran,
to perform s}ala>t (prayer), akhla>k (morals),
Islamic history, pillars of faith and to sing
religious songs every Thursday night.”20 However,
the job of the teungku meunasah is not only in teaching
Islam, but he also plays a major role as a shaykh for the villagers. It is a must for the teungku meunasah
to make himself available for the people’s
needs in religious affairs.
He acts as a “problem solver”
with the head of the village to solve problems
in society, for example
personal conflicts, religious festivals,
wedding parties, and welcoming guests. The
Teungku meunasah will work together with the
geusyik (chief of village). It is argued that the teungku
meunasah
and geusyik
are together the guardians of the village. However, the selection of the teungku meunasah is due
to the quality of his Islamic knowledge
and charisma. The head of the village is chosen
through the system of elections.
Villages where
there is not a single man who has studied at a dayah
will face many internal problems. That is why some elders will agree to let their girls be married to men from a dayah, with the aim that he could stay at the gampong to
become a teungku meunasah.
This practice can no
longer be found in the urban areas in Aceh. In some traditional gampongs,
parents prefer to send
their children to dayah.
One parent informed me that he would not hesitate about the career of their children, since he believed
that the problem was under the
direction of Allāh.
Besides
the three teungkus,
there are also other teungkus
who are well-known outside the dayah.
For example, Acehnese who lives outside
Aceh may be called Teungku Aceh. This nickname means the person can be a local shaykh.
He might be offered to be an ima>m (leader)
during prayers, as it is believed
that every Acehnese
can recite the al-Quran. We have heard
20Abdurrahman, “The Curriculum of Islamic Studies,” 67.
the term teungku Aceh used in Java. During the conflict,
when some Acehnese moved out of
Aceh and became part of
a “ganja mafia,” some people
referred to them as Teungku Aceh. The
name teungku has also been used for members of GAM who had some
prominent position in the movement.21 This group
of teungku, however,
owes their position
not to Islamic religious knowledge, but to their ideology.
For example, the grandfather of the leader of GAM, Hasan di Tiro, was called Teungku Chik
di Tiro where his real name is Mohd. Saman. While the charismatic leader
of DI/TII was formally known as Daud Beureueh,
the common people referred to him as Abu Beureueh.22 The former head of GAM, Dr. Hasan di Tiro, was called Dr.
Teungku Hasan di Tiro, not Abu
Di Tiro or Teungku Chik Hasan
di Tiro. Thus,
some people believe that the name
teungku signifies a more traditional title in Aceh, not a religious title. For example, the former Panglimas of
GAM are called teungku,
such as Teungku
Abdullah Syafi’i (the former
Chief Military of GAM) and Teungku Muzakir Manaf.
B. The O utsider ‘ U lama> : Usta >dh
This section
refers to some of informal
interviews and observations during the fieldwork in Aceh.23 In the
field, we were able to conduct an “I witness” study
of the pesantren
system run by the Jama>‘ah Tabli>gh (JT).24 Here, many of the ustadhs were
from Java, final year santri at a pesantren in
Central Java. They were sent by their
kiai25 to Aceh to teach Islamic
Studies at the pesantren
of the JT. Most of
these ustadhs were only in their 20s. Originally, the santris were from Aceh. However,
there were also some santris from outside Aceh, including from
from Makassar.
The ustadhs shared with me their experiences when they
arrived in Aceh. At
the beginning, many of
them were rejected as santris because they were Javanese. After one or two years, some
ustadhs went back to Java to
continue their studies in order to achieve the title of ‘ulama>.
They said that one
of the requirements to achieve
the
title
was
to
read
the
S{ah}i>h} al-
21 See
also
Rodd McGibbon, “Local
Leadership and
the Aceh
Conflict,”
Verandah
of Violence: The
Background of the Aceh Problem, ed. Anthony Reid (Singapore: NUS, 2006).
22 On him, see Hasanuddin
Yusuf Adan, Teungku Muhammad Dawud Beureu-Eh: ‘Ulama>, Pemimpin dan
Tokoh Pembaharuan (Bangi:
Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2005).
23 Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, “The History of Jama‘ah Tabligh in Southeast
Asia: The Role of
Islamic Sufism in Islamic Revival,” Al-Jami‘ah, 46:
2
(2008);
idem, “From Islamic
Revivalism to Islamic
Radicalism in Southeast
Asia: A Study of Jama‘ah
Tabligh in Sri Petaling (Malaysia) and Cot Goh
(Indonesia)” (Ph.D. Thesis,
La Trobe University 2009).
24 On Jama‘ah Tabligh, see generally
Muhammad Khalid Masud, ed. Travellers in Faith: Studies of the
Tabli>ghi Jama‘at as a Transnational Islamic
Movement for Faith Renewal
(Leiden: Brill, 2000); Yoginder Sikand,
The Origins
and Development of
the Tabli>ghi Jama‘at (1920-2000) (New
Delhi:
Orient
Longman, 2002); Yoginder Sikand, “The Reformist Sufism of the Tabli>ghi Jama‘at: The Case of the Meos of Mewat, India,”
Sufism and the ‘Modern’ in Islam, ed. Martin van Bruinessen and Julia Day Howel (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2007).
On
JT in Indonesia,
see
Abdul Aziz, “The Jamaah Tabligh Movement in Indonesia: Peaceful Fundamentalist,” Studia Islamika, 11: 3 (2004).
25 On Kyai see Rahardjo, “The Kyai, the Pesantren and the Village.”
Bukha>ri> and S{ah}i>h} Muslim in front of the kiai. However, some of them also
married with local women or mastu>ra>t (female karkun).
In fact, this network and
their education system
has developed into a new religious identity
in Aceh.
There is also another
image of usta>dh in the pesantren.
This usta>dh was an Achenese who had graduated from a pondok in Yala. He could speak Thai. He said that
many Tablighists who had returned from Yala should stay in the markaz (headquarter) to teach santri how
to memorize the al- Quran. This usta>dh married the daughter of the Teungku
Imuem (the head
of ima>m for daily prayers) of
this mosque. He was given a land of
paddy- field by his parents-in-law for his daily needs. Beside this, the usta>dh also visited some pesantrens in Banda Aceh to teach students how to memorize the al-Quran.
Another picture
of Javanese
usta>dh is found in a pesantren
in a
mosque in North Aceh.
The usta>dhs there were also
very young. They had come to Aceh not through Tablighist
connections. Many of them were
sent from Java through the ‘Sunnah Connection’ after the Tsunami
in Aceh in
2004. What we mean by the ‘Sunnah Connection’ is an Islamic
community
in North Aceh
who declared themselves not to be affiliated with any Islamic
maz}hab (school of thought). This group
tends to be the same as the Muhammadiyah movement.26 Nevertheless, the group is
not part of the Muhammadiyah network at all. The usta>dhs came from Java in 2005 to
teach memorizing the al-Quran. The ‘Sunnah Connection’ provided them with hospitality at the mosque. They are paid on a voluntary basis by
the group. The group asked their children to study the al-Quran at the mosque.
One of
their dreams is to send their children to higher education
that focuses
on memorizing the al-Quran.
Besides their
duties
as
teachers,
many
of
usta>dhs also acted as
imams for daily prayers. The members of the local community
liked them very much due to their voices when they recited the al-Quran during
the prayer. After the Tsunami
in 2004, the teungku imuem in this mosque was
an Acehnese. But recently, he preferred
to transfer his authority as ima>m
to usta>dh. In fact, before the Tsunami, there was a circle for Islamic studies in the community which
was also given by an Acehnese usta>dh.
They will
invite a usta>dh from another village
who is likely to be not affiliated with any madzhab. Thus, the usta>dhs
are teachers at junior or senior high schools
in North Aceh. They may not invite any of
Teungku from the dayah. Every Saturday night,
the
community
holds
religious
studies
after
the
‘Isha>’
26 On the Muhammadiyah, see generally, Howard M. Federspiel, “The Muhammadijah: A Study of an
Orthodox Islamic Movement in Indonesia,” Indonesia, 10 (1970); Alfian,
Muhammadiyah:
The
Political Behaviour of a Muslim Modernist Organization under
Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); Achmad Jainuri, Muhammadiyah:
Gerakan Reformasi Islam di Jawa pada Awal Abah Kedua Puluh
(Surabaya: Bina
Ilmu, 1981); Alwi Shihab,
Membendung
Arus: Respons Gerakan Muhammadiyah terhadap Penetrasi Misi
Kristen di Indonesia, trans. Ihsan Ali-Fauzi (Bandung:
Mizan, 1998).
prayer. In this informal
religious circle, the Javanese usta>dh
will not give any lessons as they are very young. Indeed, their job is to be teachers for the children and ima>m
during prayers.
This group of usta>dhs is coordinated under some local ‘ulama>s who
have
graduated from the Middle East. They have
regular meetings in one
district to evaluate their mission.
In this “Sunnah Connection,” the role of the
Teungku would not be found. It seems that this system is likely to be
the system of caderization that
developed in secular
campuses during the
Islamic revivalism of the 1970s and 1980s.27 At the top of this network,
there is an usta>dh who acts as the ‘Grand Usta>dh. He visits this group regularly to give
lectures, not
only for the usta>dhs but
also for all the members
of the group. The Grand
Usta>dh said that he needed to focus on the theological problems (‘aqi>dah) for the santri and the community in order
not to be seen as being linked
to Jihadist movements. During his visit,
he will also evaluate the system of
caderization. The Grand Usta>dh has very close connections with some
charitable foundations in the Middle East.
However, a local
Acehnese-usta>dh said
that
he was concerned whether the Javanese-usta>dh were giving lessons on jihad to the santri. This is because on February 2010 there was a sudden attack of a terrorist
group in Aceh, near the mountain
of Seulawah.28 One member of the caravan of usta>dh among the ‘Sunnah Connection’ was arrested by the police in this
village. He was not an usta>dh, but very close to the group. Some usta>dh who have taught jihad to students
have moved from this village.
There are some
possibilities
why
the
local
community
likes
the
caravan usta>dh
from Java. Members of the community are keen to have
their children able to memorize the al-Qur’an. Some parents
want to send their children to special schools
in the Middle East or South Asia.
There have been some of them were actually sent to the Middle East or South Asia to learn
about the al-Qur’an. The arrangements for this are
made totally through the connections of the usta>dh,
not the government. Thus,
the parents could not understand how their
children could make progress in
their studies without asking the community of usta>dh.
However, we have heard that not every santri
was successful with their mission.
One santri is in Malaysia
as an illegal worker, even
though at the beginning he had been sent to South Asia.
Next, the community claimed
that they are followers of the Sunnah,
not madzhab. They welcomed the caravan of usta>dh from
Java. Besides
27 See Zainah
Anwar, Islamic Revivalism in
Malaysia (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk 1987); Shamsul
Amri Baharuddin, “A Revival
in the
Study of
Islam in Malaysia,” Man, 18:
2
(1983). See also Kamaruzzaman
Bustamam-Ahmad, “From Islamic Revivalism
to Islamic Radicalism in Southeast Asia: A Case of Malaysia,”
Culture,
Identity,
and Religion in
Southeast Asia, ed. Alistair
D.B. Cook (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007).
28 Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, “Memahami Isu Terorisme di Aceh,” Serambi Indonesia, March 1 (2010); Mark Woodward, Ali Amin, and Inayah Rohmaniyah, “Lessons from Aceh Terrorist De-Radicalization,”
(Arizona: Arizona State University, Consortium for Strategic Communication, 2010).
their voices and during the
prayers as imam, their
performance appears Middle
Eastern. Recently, many members wear beards and dress in the Pakistani style. Before their
coming many members used sarung during prayer time, whereas now they are using the Pakistani style which, according to them, is the sunnah nabi. During the preparation of the dayah the
board of the mosque gave them the hospitality in mosque. Thus,
the activity of the mosque
is like a real pesantren, even though the usta>dhs
are very young. The board asked for the community to donate their funds
to support the needs of the usta>dh.
Furthermore, last year a dayah group in North Aceh intended
to take
over
the administration of the mosque.
They came to the mosque during the night prayer. One of
them became the imam. After the prayer
he wanted to conduct more doa in the dayah way. One Sunnah
member stood up and asked
to him to stop because
they had never done it that way before and
they did not regard it as part of the Sunnah. Following
this incident the
conflict could not be stopped.
It took place mainly because
the group of dayah wanted to open the debate on
theological problems within the
community, whereas the sunnah group
said that the mosque
was for everyone, but those traditions from the
dayah could not be brought to this
community.29 Recently, the
local
people
who
became
involved
in
the mosque are referred to as usta>dh,
even though they do not have
any Islamic
studies background.
Kuntowijoyo in his book explains that many Muslims in Indonesia, especially in the urban areas, are ‘Muslims without a mosque.’ 30 They learn Islâm
from the TV, VCD, the radio, and internet,
but are unlikely to do
shalât in a mosque. They invite usta>dh to teach their children in their own homes.
Indeed, their daily life is controlled
by a ‘revolution of the finger’ - meaning
they utilize the benefits of ICT in their religious life. By contrast,
the situation of the ‘Sunnah Community’ can be referred
to as ‘Muslims with a mosque’,
where religious problems are solved in
the mosque. This
system is similar the daily life of the Tablighists in the markâz.31 However, the system of
Community is not similar to system of Darul
Arqam in Southeast Asia.32
29 See also Martin Sokefeld, “Debating Self, Identity, and Culture in Anthropology,” Current Anthropology,
40: 4 (1999).
30 Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid: Esai-Esai Agama, Budaya, dan Politik dalam
Bingkai Strukturalisme
Transendental (Bandung: Mizan, 2001).
31 Bustamam-Ahmad, “From Islamic Revivalism to Islamic Radicalism in
Southeast Asia,” Ch. II.
32 On Arqam see Muhammad Syukri Salleh, “An Ethical Approach to Development: The Arqam Philosophy
and Achievements,”
Humanomics, 10: 1 (1994); Sharifah Zaleha Syed Hassan, “Political Islam in Malaysia: The Rise and Fall of Al Arqam,”
Asian Cultural Studies, 15: Special Issues (2006);
Judith Nagata, “Alternative Model of Islamic Governance
in Southeast Asia: Neo-Sufism and the Arqam Experiment in Malaysia,” Global Change,
Peace & Security, 16: 2 (2004);
Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Islam,
Weberism and Economic
Development: An Adjunct to Nagata’s Outline of the
Arqam Experiment
in Malaysia (1968-1994),”
Global Change, Peace &
Security, 16:
2
(2004);
Ann Wan Seng, Rahsia
Arqam: Menyingkap
‘Sisi Gelap’ Arqam
(Kuala Lumpur:
Millennia, 2005); Ann Wan Seng, Al-Arqam di Sebalik Tabir (Selangor: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 2005).
CONCLUSION
In this section we would like to highlight some important points.
First, this study shows that
in Aceh there have been two titles of religious identity
in Islamic education. The title of teungku is more likely to be
the heritage of traditional Islamic education. However, there is hierarchy of teungku which
is related to their knowledge and influence in society. The highest position
in the dayah is the
teungku chik who owns and runs the
system of the learning process. Next is the teungku bale
who works under direction of Teungku Chik. Teungku rankang are the senior santri who act as assistants
to the teungku bale. However, there is also a teungku meunasah
in the village with the chief of the
gampong, whose job is to
give elementary
Islamic teaching to children before their study at dayah or public school.
The title usta>dh is more likely to be an “embedded religious
title” in
Islamic education
in Aceh. It can be
traced from the establishment of the pondok modern in Aceh 1980s. Many usta>dh arrived in Aceh to work not only
in Islamic education, but also in da’wah (Islamic missionary work). There has been a conflict
between teungku and usta>dh in some sub-districts
in Aceh. Some Acehnese say that the coming of usta>dh has
challenged the authority and charisma of the teungkus.
In the history of the Islamic
movement in the Malay world this
situation can be seen from the conflict between kaum
muda and kaum tua.33
Second, this essay has found that
these titles are used not only in Islamic
education. The title of
teungku is utilized by some
respected GAM members even though they do
not have any background in dayah. A
GAM member said this title is not part of the identity of dayah
people, but of the entire Aceh people.34 In addition, after the signing of the MOU between the
GAM and Indonesian government, some dayah people have also become involved in the political
arena by establishing a political party.
They also have mobilized dayah
people to ensure the implementation of Islamic law in
Aceh.35 Thus, it can be argued that the teungku
still play an important role in
Aceh society.
33 Taufik Abdullah, “Adat and Islam: An Examination of Conflict in Minangkabau,” Indonesia, 2 (1966); Taufik Abdullah, Schools and Pollitics: The Kaum Muda Movement
in West Sumatra (1927-1933)
(New
York: Modern Indonesian Project Southeast Asia Program Cornell University, 1971); Abu Bakar Hamzah, Al-Imam:
Its Role in Malay Society (Kuala Lumpur:
Pustaka Antara, 1991); Christine Dobbin, “Islamic Revivalism in Minangkabau at the Turn of the Nineteenth
Century,” Modern Asian Studies, 8: 3 (1974); Christine Dobbin, Gejolak Ekonomi,
Kebangkitan Islam, Dan Gerakan Padri, ed. Fadjriah Nurdiarsih, trans. Lilian D. Tedjasudhana
(Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu,
2008);
Murni Djamal, “The
Origin
of the
Islamic
Reform
Movement in Minangkabau:
Life and Thought of Abdul Karim Amrullah,” Studia Islamika, 5: 3 (1998).
34 In fact there is axiom in Acehnese society: Aceh Teungku, Melayu Abang, Cina Toke, Kafe Tuan. A. Hasjmy, “Nafas Islam Dalam Kesusasteraan Aceh,” Dari Sini Ia Bersemi (Banda Aceh: Panitian
Penyelenggara
Musabaqah Tilawatil Quran Tingkat Nasional ke-12, 1981).
35 Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, “The Application of Islamic Law in Indonesia: The Case Study of
Aceh,” Journal of Indonesian Islam, 1: 1 (2007); Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad, Islamic Law in Southeast
Asia: A
Study of Its Application in
Aceh
and Kelantan (Chiang Mai: Silkworm, 2009).
As for the usta>dh group there is a tendency that their arrival
in Aceh is not only
for the purposes of Islamic teaching
but is also part of expanding the terrorist network
in Indonesia. In this
study we have examined
one group of Islamic
society in Aceh,
where some Javanese-usta>dhs contribute to religious life. It is also likely to have connections to terrorist networks
in Indonesia. Some of it networks do have another
mission
in
Aceh – to
conduct jihad to establish an Islamic caliphate. In this context, Javanese-
usta>dhs have a very well-organized system in Aceh. They
are not only
teachers, but are also part of
an Islamic hardline movement in Indonesia.36
Third, there is a serious problem in Acehnese
society in terms of the
sustainability of the Islamic traditional system of education. This is because
many parents are eager to send
their children to pondok modern, rather than
to dayah. Then, they may continue their studies to university level, not only in
Aceh, but also in the Middle East. In this situation the role of the dayah has decreased in terms of the development of Islamic studies in Aceh. There
needs to be more studies to focus on the impact of the pondok modern in Acehnese
society. This study
has only focused
on the role of teacher,
not the influence of the institution in the society.
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